Chicago Manual of Style: When and How to Use It
If you’re a Kenyan student pursuing a degree in history, philosophy, literature, or the arts, chances are your lecturer has mentioned the Chicago Manual of Style. But understanding when to use it and how to apply its rules can feel overwhelming—especially when you’re already stressed about your thesis proposal.
The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) is one of the oldest and most respected style guides in academic writing. First published in 1906 by the University of Chicago Press, it is now in its 18th edition (2024). Unlike APA, which dominates psychology and social sciences, or MLA, which rules literature and English, Chicago is the preferred style for history, humanities, philosophy, and some social science disciplines.
But here’s the thing: Chicago isn’t just one system. It’s actually two different citation styles in one guide. If you’re unsure which one to use, or how to format your footnotes and bibliography correctly, don’t worry—we’ll break it all down for you. And if you’re still struggling with citations or formatting your thesis proposal, our expert team at Proposal Writers Kenya is here to help you get it right the first time.
What Is Chicago Style and Who Uses It?
The Chicago Manual of Style is a comprehensive guide covering everything from grammar and punctuation to citation formatting and manuscript preparation. It is widely used across Kenyan universities, particularly in departments that emphasize historical research and humanities scholarship.
Who uses Chicago style?
History students analyzing primary and secondary sources
Philosophy and classics students engaging with complex texts
Arts and humanities researchers publishing in academic journals
Some social science disciplines that prefer footnotes over parenthetical citations
It’s also important to understand the difference between Chicago and Turabian. Kate Turabian, a former dissertation secretary at the University of Chicago, created a student-focused version of Chicago style. Turabian is essentially Chicago simplified for research papers, theses, and dissertations. If your supervisor says “use Turabian,” they’re really asking you to use Chicago style with student-friendly adjustments.
The Two Chicago Citation Systems
Chicago offers two distinct citation systems, and choosing the right one is your first step.
System 1: Notes and Bibliography (NB)
This is the traditional Chicago system, preferred in humanities disciplines like literature, history, and classics.
How it works:
You place superscript numbers in your text that correspond to footnotes (at the bottom of the page) or endnotes (at the end of your paper)
Each note provides full citation details for the source
A bibliography at the end lists all sources alphabetically
Example in text: The colonial period in Kenya has been extensively studied by historians.¹
Footnote: ¹ Timothy Parsons, The British Imperial Century, 1815–1914: A World History Perspective (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2019), 112.
System 2: Author-Date
This system is simpler and resembles APA style. It’s preferred in physical, natural, and social sciences.
How it works:
You place parenthetical citations in the text: (Author Last Name Year, Page)
A reference list at the end provides full publication details
Example in text: The colonial period in Kenya has been extensively studied by historians (Parsons 2019, 112).
Notes and Bibliography Style (In-Depth)
Footnotes vs. Endnotes
Footnotes appear at the bottom of each page. This is the most common choice for academic papers because readers can see citations immediately.
Endnotes appear on a separate page at the end of the document. This is often used for manuscripts where page space is limited.
Formatting footnotes:
Numbers are superscript Arabic numerals in order of appearance
Place the note number at the end of the sentence or clause, after punctuation (except for dashes)
Indent the first line of each note
Full Note vs. Shortened Note
First citation (full note):
Include author’s full name (first name first), full title, publication information, and page number(s).
Subsequent citations (shortened note):
Same source cited consecutively: use author’s last name and page number only
Same source not consecutive: use author’s last name, shortened title (4 words or fewer), and page number
Example:
Timothy Parsons, The British Imperial Century, 1815–1914 (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2019), 112.
Parsons, 145. (Consecutive citation)
Parsons, British Imperial Century, 67. (Non-consecutive citation)
Bibliography Format
List entries alphabetically by author’s last name
Use hanging indent: first line flush left, subsequent lines indented
Author’s name is inverted: last name, first name
Important updates in the 18th edition (2024):
Place of publication is no longer required for book citations
Author’s name is repeated in bibliographies instead of using the 3-em dash
Author-Date Style (In-Depth)
In-Text Citations
Format: (Author Last Name Year, Page)
Example: (Parsons 2019, 112)
Multiple authors: (Smith and Jones 2020, 45) or (Smith et al. 2020, 45) for three or more authors
No page number: just (Author Year)
Reference List
Alphabetical by author’s last name
Author’s name inverted (last name, first name)
Periods between elements, not commas
Important updates in the 18th edition:
Up to six authors listed in reference list; if more, first three followed by “et al.”
In shortened notes and text citations: up to two authors listed; if more, first author et al.
Citation Examples
Books
Notes and Bibliography:
Full note: 1. Ken Kesey, Sometimes a Great Notion (Bantam Books, 1981), 77.
Bibliography: Kesey, Ken. Sometimes a Great Notion. Bantam Books, 1981.
Author-Date:
Text citation: (Kesey 1981, 77)
Reference list: Kesey, Ken. 1981. Sometimes a Great Notion. Bantam Books.
Journal Articles
Notes and Bibliography:
Full note: 1. Kathy S. Mason, “Buffalo Soldiers as Guardians of the Parks,” Historian 81, no. 1 (2019): 84–98.
Bibliography: Mason, Kathy S. “Buffalo Soldiers as Guardians of the Parks.” Historian 81, no. 1 (2019): 84–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsin.13064.
Author-Date:
Text citation: (Mason 2019, 84)
Reference list: Mason, Kathy S. 2019. “Buffalo Soldiers as Guardians of the Parks.” Historian 81 (1): 84–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsin.13064.
Newspaper Articles
Notes and Bibliography:
Full note: 1. Dani Blum, “Are Flax Seeds All That?” New York Times, December 13, 2023.
Bibliography: Blum, Dani. “Are Flax Seeds All That?” New York Times, December 13, 2023.
Websites
Notes and Bibliography:
Full note: 1. Yale University, “About Yale: Yale Facts,” accessed March 8, 2022, https://www.yale.edu/about-yale/yale-facts.
Bibliography: Yale University. “About Yale: Yale Facts.” Accessed March 8, 2022. https://www.yale.edu/about-yale/yale-facts.
General Formatting Guidelines
Font: Times New Roman, 10- or 12-point
Spacing: Double-spaced throughout (text, notes, bibliography)
Page numbers: Top right, starting on first page of text
Title page: Title in all caps, centered one-third down; name and course info two-thirds down
Headings: Five levels available (centered, bold/italic; left-aligned, etc.)
Chicago vs. Other Styles: Quick Comparison
| Feature | Chicago | APA | MLA |
|---|---|---|---|
| Citation system | Footnotes or author-date | Parenthetical (Author, Year) | Parenthetical (Author, Page) |
| Primary users | History, humanities | Psychology, social sciences | Literature, English, arts |
| Serial comma | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Title capitalization | Title case (significant words) | Sentence case (reference list) | Title case |
Conclusion
Mastering the Chicago Manual of Style is essential for students in history, humanities, philosophy, and the arts. Whether you choose the Notes and Bibliography system or the Author-Date system, consistency and attention to detail are key.
The 18th edition (2024) has introduced important updates, so make sure you’re using the current version. And remember: proper formatting isn’t just about following rules—it demonstrates your professionalism and commitment to academic integrity.
Feeling overwhelmed by citations and formatting? You don’t have to navigate this alone. The expert team at Proposal Writers Kenya specializes in helping Kenyan students format their thesis proposals perfectly—including Chicago, APA, MLA, and Harvard styles. We’ll ensure your citations are flawless so you can focus on your research. Contact us today for a free consultation and get your thesis proposal submission-ready.